UK and Europe: Cultural, diplomatic and security relations

Approximate read time: 20 minutes

On 10 October 2024 the House of Lords is scheduled to debate the following motion:

Baroness Smith of Newnham (Liberal Democrat) to move that this House takes note of the relations between the United Kingdom and Europe, particularly on issues of culture, diplomacy and security.

Baroness Smith is the Liberal Democrat spokesperson on defence issues in the House of Lords.

1. Background

The UK interacts with other European countries through a number of different forums on a number of different subjects. It has connections with the European Union, individual countries within it and non-EU countries within the European Economic Area (EEA). It also maintains relations with non-EU/EEA countries, such as Switzerland, and non-EU states in the Balkans, Moldova and Ukraine. The UK is also a member of multilateral organisations such as the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). In July 2024, the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) published a map showing Europe’s “evolving security architecture” which highlighted some of the complexity of European security relationships. Although it looked only at defence, the map detailed 129 agreements with 44 countries and 18 European security organisations, frameworks and initiatives of which the UK is a member, including NATO, and the Joint Expeditionary Force (JEF) of 10 northern European states.^[1] Some of these relationships are explored in more detail in the following sections of this briefing.

1.1 UK relations with the European Union

The EU is a group of 27 countries in Europe, it includes Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Republic of Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Sweden.^[2] The UK has an important economic relationship with the EU, with the bloc providing a substantial percentage of the UK’s total trade. In 2023, the UK exported £356bn of goods and services to the EU; 42% of UK exports were to the EU, in contrast with 58% to non-EU countries. Imports from the EU amounted to £466bn (52% of all UK imports) compared to £432bn from non-EU countries (48% of all UK imports). Overall, in 2023 the UK had a trade deficit with the EU of £110bn and a trade surplus of £59bn with non-EU countries.^[3]

The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020. The post-Brexit transition period ended on 31 December 2020. Following negotiations between the UK and the EU, the current relationship is principally governed by the Withdrawal Agreement (WA) and the Trade and Cooperation Agreement (TCA) and the committee structures created by these agreements.^[4] In April 2023, the House of Lords European Affairs Committee, in a report entitled ‘The future UK-EU relationship’, described the political relationship between the UK and the EU in the first two years after the TCA came into force as “characterised by tension and mistrust”. It described this situation as “highly unsatisfactory”. However, the committee also welcomed the “change in mood around UK-EU relations” since autumn 2022, particularly after the conclusion of the Windsor Framework in February 2023.

The Windsor Framework made changes to the protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland which had been agreed as part of the WA. The purpose of the protocol was to prevent a hard border on the island of Ireland, by requiring Northern Ireland to align with EU law in some areas and allowing it to maintain frictionless access to the EU.^[5] There had been criticisms from the UK regarding the feasibility of the protocol and the EU’s approach to implementing it, while the EU had expressed concern regarding the UK’s commitment to parts of the protocol.^[6]

The academic think tank UK in a Changing Europe has argued that the adoption of the framework was “the most important change under the WA, bringing to an end the standoff between the UK and the EU”.^[7] It noted that the implementation of the framework had “normalised relations across the board” and led to an uptick in engagements under the structures of the WA. However, the think tank also outlined limitations in the relationship, noting that while “most technical work appears to be running smoothly post-Windsor” there were “precious few” opportunities for UK ministers to meet their EU counterparts. In the absence of formal links, EU and UK leaders “have had to rely on bilateral discussions in the margins of international summits to build relations and drive forward new initiatives”.^[8] It cited meetings of the European Political Community (EPC), and discussions on the margins of the Council of Europe meetings, as examples of this (for more information on the EPC see section 2.2 of this briefing).

The UK can sign bilateral agreements with individual EU member states.^[9] However, as UK in a Changing Europe explained, these may be limited in scope and for the most part non-binding. EU member states cannot enter into agreements where the EU has exclusive competence or in areas covered by the WA or the TCA unless specifically authorised. Any such agreement must also take into account the internal market and broader EU interests. The think tank described such bilateral agreements as “broad, but mainly aspirational”. Such agreements would usually cover bilateral relations in foreign policy, security and defence, economic cooperation, law enforcement and judicial cooperation, people-to-people links (mobility), environment and energy, and research and science.^[10] Section 2 of this briefing provides more information about the EPC and other bilateral relations.

1.2 UK relations with other European countries and institutions

In addition to its relations with EU countries post-Brexit the UK has also developed relationships with non-EU countries. Trade with the non-EU European Economic Area (EEA) countries (Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein) had previously been largely regulated by bilateral agreements with the EU. Replacing this, the EEA European Free Trade Association (EFTA)-UK agreement entered into force on 1 September 2022 for Liechtenstein, Norway and the United Kingdom, and on 1 February 2023 for Iceland.^[11] The UK also has a trade agreement with Switzerland, which is not a member of the EEA, but has access to the single market through bilateral agreements with the EU. The trade agreement between the UK and Switzerland came into force on 1 January 2021. Previously relations between the two countries were also predominantly governed by bilateral agreements with the EU.^[12] Other agreements also exist with both EU and non-EU countries. For example, in April 2024 the UK government, alongside Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Norway, and Denmark, signed an agreement to cooperate and share information on the protection of underwater infrastructure.^[13] The UK is also a member of several multilateral organisations which involve European countries both within and outside the EU. For example, the Council of Europe, OSCE, NATO, and JEF.

1.3 UK government policy

During the 2024 general election, the Labour Party expressed a desire to “reconnect with allies and forge new partnerships to deliver security and prosperity at home and abroad”. It also said it wanted the UK to be “a leading nation in Europe again, with an improved and ambitious relationship with our European partners”.^[14] The party argued that a “strong and connected Britain” was a necessary response to a “more volatile and insecure” world, exemplified by war having returned to Europe, violence in the Middle East, and geopolitical tensions exacerbated by rapid technological change and a changing climate.

The party’s manifesto said Labour would seek to reset the UK-EU relationship, without the UK returning to the single market or the customs union. It stated that a Labour government would instead strive to improve the UK-EU trade and investment relationship, for example by negotiating a veterinary agreement, helping touring artists, and seeking mutual recognition agreements for professional qualifications. The manifesto also included pledges to pursue an “ambitious new UK-EU security pact”, increased security cooperation with allies France and Germany, and “new bilateral agreements and closer working with Joint Expeditionary Force partners”.^[15] The UK government reiterated these commitments following the general election.^[16]

The manifesto also committed Labour to strengthen the UK’s influence abroad, defend the country’s national interests, promote progressive values and protect UK nationals. On the UK’s soft power, for example, the party pledged to work across government to bring leading creative and cultural institutions together to “increase the UK’s international clout”, and with diaspora communities to enhance the UK’s cultural links internationally. The party also promised to introduce a new right to consular assistance in cases of rights violations.

2. UK engagement with partners since the general election: Security, diplomacy and culture

Prior to the general election, David Lammy, now foreign secretary, had expanded on his vision for UK foreign policy under a Labour government. Amid calls for a UK-EU security pact he also called for closer UK bilateral relationships with France, Germany, Ireland, and Poland, including a British-German defence agreement similar to the Lancaster House treaties the UK signed with France in 2010.^[17] Following the general election in July 2024 there have been a number of bilateral and international meetings between UK government ministers and their European counterparts.

Prime Minister Keir Starmer has met with Irish Taoiseach Simon Harris and undertaken bilateral visits to France, Germany and Italy amongst others. In July he attended the NATO summit in the United States, telling the Financial Times that he and other UK ministers attending would seek to exploit the opportunity for talks with European counterparts that would otherwise have taken “months and months and months” to organise.^[18] Mr Starmer also hosted European leaders at an EPC meeting at Blenheim Palace in July 2024. Meanwhile, Mr Lammy has visited Sweden, Poland, Germany and Ukraine, while Defence Secretary John Healey has travelled to Ukraine, France, Germany, Poland and Estonia.^[19]

Foreign Secretary David Lammy has also announced three strategic reviews to examine the UK’s global impact, the UK’s economic capability in diplomacy and how to maximise the benefits of the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office’s (FCDO) joint integrated development diplomacy model in development work.^[20] The government said these reviews, which are expected to report by the end of the year, would help to reconnect Britain and deliver the UK government’s missions internationally. Defence Secretary John Healey has also commissioned a ‘root and branch’ review of the UK armed forces, to be undertaken by Lord Robertson of Port Ellen (Labour).^[21] Lord Robertson is a former secretary general of NATO.

This section provides a non-exhaustive list of activities undertaken by the incoming Labour government with a number of European countries since the general election.

2.1 European Union

In July 2024 Defence Minister Luke Pollard stated that negotiating a new UK-EU security pact was “a cross-government priority”, which the government would seek to negotiate “in due course”.^[22] The UK-EU TCA does not include a security partnership involving defence and foreign policy cooperation, although there has been increased cooperation following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022.^[23] RUSI has noted that with defence and security not included in the TCA the UK has “significantly increased” the use of bilateral defence and security agreements.^[24]

The idea of a UK-EU pact on external action is not without precedent. For example, in 2019 the EU and the UK signed a political declaration on the future of the relationship.^[25] But while there is interest in cooperation, think tank UK in a Changing Europe has argued that the scope of such an agreement may be a sticking point and “trickier areas for cooperation might end up being kicked into the long grass. Writing for RUSI, Ed Arnold and Professor Richard Whitman argued it was uncertain what a pact could achieve.^[26] The authors stated that the EU has been “both welcoming and non-committal” on closer UK-EU cooperation, and that the use of bespoke agreements between EU and third countries is rare. They urged the UK government to focus on agreeing a UK-EU joint declaration on defence “as soon as practically possible” to set a strong sense of direction. In addition, they argued that the periodic review of the TCA, first set for 2026, could be used to reconsider whether to expand its provisions on UK-EU cooperation on international issues.

Labour’s manifesto expressed a desire to improve the UK’s trade and investment relationship with the EU, remove unnecessary barriers to trade and “help our touring artists”.^[27] On 4 September 2024, the Financial Times reported that internal EU briefing documents showed the European Commission had ruled out loosening post-Brexit restrictions on UK touring musicians.^[28] The reports cited EU assertions that a deal on touring musicians would require rewriting the UK-EU TCA and was therefore not possible. In addition, the internal documents reportedly stated that some form of youth mobility deal that allowed 18 to 30-year-olds to travel and work would be a key element of any new pact with the UK. In April 2024, the EU put forward proposals for a UK-EU youth mobility scheme for those aged between 18 and 30 to stay in their destination country for up to four years. However, the proposals were rejected by both the previous Conservative government and the Labour Party while in opposition.^[29]

In September 2024 the Labour government stated that it had “no plans for an EU-wide youth mobility scheme and there will be no return to freedom of movement”.^[30] However, the German ambassador to the UK, Miguel Berger, has drawn a distinction between youth mobility and migration or free movement, arguing that youth mobility proposals were “based on visa requirements and limited time periods. People leave after a set time”.^[31] The EU is reported to be working on fresh proposals for a youth mobility scheme with the UK.

2.2 European Political Community

First proposed by President of France Emmanuel Macron in May 2022, the European Political Community (EPC) seeks to “foster political dialogue and cooperation to address issues of common interest” in order to strengthen the security, stability and prosperity of the European continent.^[32] The forum brings together 47 European countries, with meetings held twice a year. Russia and Belarus were excluded from the EPC following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine, and Belarus’s support for the invasion. The presidents of the European Council, the European Commission, and the European Parliament also take part in discussions.^[33] Host countries for summits alternate between non-EU members and the EU member state holding the EU Council presidency. On 18 July 2024, the UK hosted the fourth EPC meeting at Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire.

Issues discussed at the 2024 EPC included a focus on tackling illegal immigration, ensuring energy security and improving security cooperation between the UK and its European partners.^[34] During the summit Prime Minister Keir Starmer held bilateral meetings with Prime Minister Jonas Støre of Norway, Prime Minister Donald Tusk of Poland, French President Emmanuel Macron and Irish Taoiseach Simon Harris. Mr Starmer also met with Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez of Spain. The two leaders were reported to have discussed the possibility of a youth mobility scheme between the UK and Spain.^[35] At a press conference following the EPC summit, Keir Starmer again pledged to deepen cooperation on defence and security, while also announcing deals with Slovenia and Slovakia aimed at tackling organised crime.^[36] Jill Rutter, writing for the Institute for Government, argued that the EPC had gone well for Keir Starmer and “completes a positive international induction round”.^[37]

2.3 Germany

On 24 July 2024, Defence Minister John Healey and German Defence Minister Boris Pistorius announced they had signed a ‘Joint declaration on enhanced defence cooperation between Germany and the United Kingdom’.^[38] The declaration included policy objectives relating to strengthening defence industries, reinforcing Euro-Atlantic security, enhancing interoperability, addressing emerging threats, supporting Ukraine and cooperation on long-range capabilities. The declaration also included proposals to improve intergovernmental cooperation structures and a “senior-level group” steering defence cooperation. This would include annual meetings with defence ministers and enhanced dialogue between parliamentarians. The declaration proposed greater defence industrial collaboration and increased military-to-military contacts with a renewed emphasis on “defence diplomacy, interoperability, military doctrine development and high-level strategic exchanges”.^[39] Defence Minister Luke Pollard described the defence cooperation deal as “an important first step in a new relationship” between Germany and the UK.^[40]

A month later, on 28 August 2024, Mr Starmer and German Chancellor Olaf Scholz issued a joint declaration announcing that work would start on a bilateral cooperation treaty, to be signed in early 2025.^[41] The declaration stated that the treaty would reflect “the strongest possible cooperation on the issues that matter most to our populations”. These would include foreign policy cooperation in peace and security, law enforcement cooperation and action to tackle irregular migration, increased people-to-people contacts, youth and education, energy security, climate and nature policy, development policy, transport and infrastructure as well as technology, research and innovation. Keir Starmer has said that the treaty will not entail “reversing Brexit” and denied the treaty would include a youth mobility scheme. ^[42] He confirmed, however, that he wanted a “close relationship” including “education and cultural exchange” when asked about the possibility of student exchanges between the UK and Germany.

2.4 France

In addition to a short meeting with French President Emmanuel Macron at the NATO summit in July 2024, the UK prime minister held a longer bilateral meeting with Mr Macron during the EPC later that month. A joint declaration was issued following the EPC meeting that France and the UK would pursue cooperation at both a bilateral and global level which would include a focus on sustainable economic growth, international development, energy security and driving low carbon solutions to tackle the climate and nature emergencies. The declaration also reaffirmed the two countries’ “deep commitment to Europe’s defence and security”.^[43]

Prime Minister Keir Starmer held a further meeting with the French president when visiting Paris on 29 August 2024, where they agreed on “the importance of further strengthening and broadening the close relationship between the UK and France in the coming months”.^[44]

2.5 Italy

In September 2024, Prime Minister Keir Starmer undertook his first visit to Italy since taking office. Following a bilateral meeting with Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni, the leaders announced an ambition “to make this relationship count for even more, bilaterally and internationally”.^[45]

Proposals in the statement included plans to combat human trafficking, including through better bilateral cooperation on investigative capacities and the improvement of data exchanges. It also committed the two countries to “opening an exciting and ambitious new chapter in the long and warm relations between Italy and the United Kingdom, full of promise and opportunity”.

2.6 Joint Expeditionary Force partners

The Labour manifesto promised “closer working with Joint Expeditionary Force partners”.^[46] Established in 2014, The JEF is a UK-led initiative, made up of 10 northern European countries: the UK, Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Iceland. In September 2014, the purpose of the JEF was described by the UK government at its establishment as “a pool of high readiness, adaptable forces that is designed to enhance the UK’s ability to respond rapidly, anywhere in the world”, through working with “like-minded allies, or on behalf of international organisations such as the UN or NATO”.^[47]

RUSI noted the UK’s defence and security focus on Northern Europe and the 10 members of the JEF in its recent review of trends in the UK’s network of security relationships in Europe.^[48] Examples of this focus can be seen in the UK’s actions towards JEF ally Norway. Prime Minister Keir Starmer met with Prime Minister Jonas Støre of Norway at the July 2024 EPC, where the leaders agreed that they should initiate a Norwegian-UK partnership on security and energy transition.^[49] In addition, Foreign Secretary David Lammy travelled to Norway in September 2024 to meet with Norwegian Foreign Minister Espen Barth Eide and discuss deepening UK-Norway security collaboration.^[50] The UK also maintains an operational deployment to Estonia.

More information about the purpose and activities of the JEF can be found in the House of Commons Library briefing: ‘What is the Joint Expeditionary Force’, 6 August 2024.

3. Read more

• House of Commons Library, ‘The UK in a volatile world’, 16 July 2024
• House of Commons Library, ‘NATO’s Washington summit’, 16 July 2024
• House of Lords Library, ‘King’s Speech 2024: Foreign affairs and international development’, 12 July 2024
• House of Lords Library, ‘King’s Speech 2024: Defence’, 12 July 2024
• House of Commons Library, ‘The UK-EU Trade and Cooperation Agreement: Review clauses’, 10 July 2024
• House of Lords Library, ‘Educational trips and exchanges: Budget challenges, post-Brexit travel, and the introduction of the Turing scheme’, 11 April 2024
• House of Commons Library, ‘UK participation in EU programmes: Horizon Europe and Copernicus’, 22 December 2023
• House of Lords Library, ‘The future UK-EU relationship: Report by the House of Lords European Affairs Committee’, 8 September 2023
• House of Lords Library, ‘Current state of the Organization for Security and Cooperation’, 19 September 2023

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