Detention of British nationals in Iran

Approximate read time: 10 minutes

The House of Lords is scheduled to consider the following topical question for short debate on 27 February 2025:

The Lord Bishop of Chelmsford to ask His Majesty’s Government what progress they are making to reduce the number of British citizens being held by the Iranian regime.

1. Detentions in Iran

The number of British nationals including dual British nationals detained by Iranian authorities is not published, with many choosing to avoid publicity to prevent release negotiations being put at risk.^[1] Academic research published in 2022 suggested at least 66 foreign and dual nationals had been detained by Iranian authorities since 2010, 16 of which were reported to have either British or dual British nationality.^[2] According to the BBC, Iran has arrested dozens of Iranians with dual nationality or foreign permanent residency in recent years, mostly on spying and national security charges.^[3]

The UK and Iran have had a complex relationship for decades.^[4] Recent sources of tension include the arbitrary detention and/or execution of dual British-Iranian nationals within Iran.^[5] Known cases include Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe who was detained in 2016 and accused of plotting to overthrow the Iranian government. Mrs Zaghari-Ratcliffe denied the charges.^[6] Anoosheh Ashoori was detained in 2017 on spying charges, which he denied, and was sentenced to 10 years in prison. Both were subsequently released and permitted to return to the UK in March 2022.^[7] In January 2023, Iranian authorities executed British-Iranian national Alireza Akbari who had been detained since 2019 on spying charges, which he denied.^[8] Most recently, British nationals Craig and Lindsay Foreman were detained on espionage charges in January 2025 and remain in Iranian custody.^[9]

Since 2014, human rights groups have accused the Iranian government of carrying out a pattern of “politically motivated arrests” against dual nationals in the country.^[10] Iranian authorities do not recognise dual nationality and instead consider individuals to be Iranian nationals only. According to the latest Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO) foreign travel advice for Iran, the country is highly unlikely to accept requests made by the UK government on behalf of dual nationals.^[11] For instance, in 2022, the UK government said the Iranian government had repeatedly denied consular access to dual nationals in detention.^[12] The government also warns of a very high risk of arrest, questioning and detention for British nationals and British-Iranian dual nationals entering Iran.^[13] The current guidance states:

British nationals, including British-Iranian dual nationals, and other foreign nationals, have been unfairly detained in Iran. They are often made to serve long prison sentences. In 2023, Iran executed some foreign national detainees, including a British-Iranian national. The criminal justice process in these cases falls below international standards.^[14]

The UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention has considered several cases in recent years concerning arbitrary deprivation of liberty in Iran. The human rights experts have expressed concern that these cases were indicative of “systemic arbitrary detention” in Iran which they said amounted to a serious violation of international law.^[15] Campaigners have linked the detention of dual nationals to geopolitical tensions between Iran, Europe and North America.^[16] This includes long-standing tensions over the Iranian government’s nuclear activity, destabilising activities in the Middle East and the arbitrary detention of dual nationals.^[17]

2. Summary of previous government activity

UK governments have long expressed concerns about the detention of British nationals, including dual British nationals, in Iran. In 2021, for example, the then Conservative government said Iranian authorities had continued to deny consular access to dual British nationals in detention during 2020.^[18]

The UK joined a Canadian-led initiative in February 2021 to condemn and deter the practice of arbitrary detention.^[19] To date, the ‘Declaration against arbitrary detention in state-to-state relations’ has been endorsed by 80 states. The declaration is seen as a statement of solidarity that signatories will not tolerate a citizen of one state being taken hostage by another state as a means of political leverage.^[20]

The Conservative government’s integrated review of security, defence, development and foreign policy, published in March 2021, included a priority action to “end the practice of arbitrary arrest, detention or sentencing of foreign nationals to exercise leverage over other governments”.^[21] A refreshed integrated review was published in March 2023. This did not explicitly refer to the previous priority action, and non-government organisation (NGO) Redress accused the government of dropping its commitment.^[22] However, the refreshed review said the UK would contribute to deterring the Iranian government’s “destabilising behaviour, including threats against the UK and UK-based individuals”.^[23]

The Conservative government listed Iran as a human rights priority country in the most recent human rights and democracy report, published in July 2023 and covering 2022.^[24] These are countries the government has judged to “either have human rights or democracy challenges or are on a negative or positive trajectory”. In the report, the government said Iranian authorities had continued to deny consular access to dual British nationals in detention. Additionally, it accused the Iranian government of having “intensified its practice of using detained nationals for political leverage”.

Some parliamentarians criticised the Conservative government for being ineffective at ensuring the release of detainees. For example, in 2023, the House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee (FAC) said the government had been “too slow or entirely unwilling to call out countries guilty of state hostage-taking”.^[25] In its inquiry report, FAC recommendations included the establishment of a new high-level role of position of ‘director for arbitrary and complex detentions’ to advocate for detainees and their families.^[26] The government rejected the recommendation on the basis that its existing structure was best placed to manage the UK’s diplomatic response to complex detentions such as those in Iran.^[27]

3. Labour government announcements

The Labour Party’s 2024 general election manifesto included a commitment to strengthen support for British nationals abroad.^[28] In September 2024, the UK’s statement on arbitrary detention at the UN Human Rights Council said the government worked both publicly and privately to condemn the use of arbitrary detention, to support those who have been arbitrarily detained and to demand accountability.^[29] The statement also said the UK continued to support the Canadian-led initiative to condemn the use of arbitrary detention in state-to-state relations.

Parliamentarians sought clarity from the government on 5 December 2024 about its plans to support detained British nationals abroad. Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs Hamish Falconer said the FCDO were assisting 1,400 British nationals detained overseas.^[30] The minister said this assistance was being provided both directly and through a partnership with the charity Prisoners Abroad. He said the assistance worked to ensure British nationals were visited by the FCDO and had access to essentials such as food and medication. Additionally, the minister said the government had long-running partnerships with NGOs such as Reprieve and the Death Penalty Project that provided expertise in complex cases.

The government has also outlined new plans to support British nationals detained overseas, in addition to the current FCDO arrangements. On 27 November 2024, Foreign Secretary David Lammy said he hoped to announce the establishment of a special envoy for complex detention cases.^[31] The foreign secretary did not elaborate on the role but said the government had been informed by the FAC’s previous reports and would be coming forward with the plans in the coming months.

The Labour Party’s 2024 manifesto included a promise to introduce a new legal right to consular assistance in cases of rights violations.^[32] Redress has previously called on the government to introduce a legal mandate for consular assistance.^[33] The NGO argued the existing discretionary nature of consular assistance stood “at odds” with the UK’s international obligations and “falls short” of the protections British nationals deserve. Human rights charity Prisoners Abroad has also said it supported a legal right to consular assistance due to the vital role it plays in safeguarding the welfare and human rights of British citizens detained overseas.^[34] During the FAC’s oral evidence session on 27 November 2024, the committee asked the foreign secretary when the government planned to introduce the legal right to consular access.^[35] In response, the foreign secretary said “I have to stick to my form of words: we will be coming forward with plans in the coming months. We have not quite got there”.

The Labour Party’s 2024 manifesto also committed to conducting a strategic defence review (SDR) within its first year of government.^[36] It said this was in response to evolving threats faced by the UK in recent years. The government launched the SDR shortly after the general election.^[37] The review is expected to report in the first half of 2025. It is being overseen by Defence Secretary John Healey and headed by former defence secretary and NATO secretary general Lord Robertson of Port Ellen (Labour).

4. Read more

• House of Lords Library, ‘UK-Iran relations’, 17 February 2023
• House of Commons Library, ‘Dual nationals imprisoned in Iran’, updated 22 September 2023
• Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, ‘Iran’s further escalation of its nuclear programme: Joint statement by France, Germany and the UK’, 9 December 2024
• Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, ‘There is no justification for Iran’s stockpiling of high enriched uranium: UK statement at the UN Security Council’, 17 December 2024
• Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, ‘International Atomic Energy Agency board of governors on the ‘Joint comprehensive plan of action’, November 2024: E3 statement’, 21 November 2024
• Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, ‘Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office consular data 2023’, updated 31 October 2024

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